The History of Addiction
Early History of Addiction
The history of addiction is as old as human civilization itself, with the use of psychoactive substances tracing back to prehistoric times. These substances, ranging from opium to cannabis, were consumed for various purposes, including religious ceremonies, medicinal applications, and social activities.
Substance Use in Ancient Civilizations
Several ancient cultures, including the Romans and Scythians, were known for their use of psychoactive substances. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, for instance, frequently used opium for pain relief and to enhance his quality of life. This regular use led to withdrawal symptoms when he attempted to quit, affecting his ability to conduct his duties during the day, and is an early example of what we understand today as addiction.
The Romans also considered cannabis seeds a delicacy, consumed fried as a dessert after dinner. The seeds were believed to enhance the appetite for drinking and create a feeling of warmth that could induce a "warm and toxic vapor" when consumed in large amounts.
The Scythians, on the other hand, engaged in smoking rituals involving hemp, as described by the historian Herodotus. When a Scythian died, their friends and family would burn hemp inside a tent, leading to pleasurable experiences from the smoke and causing them to howl with pleasure.
Psychoactive Plants in Prehistoric Times
One of the earliest known evidence of psychoactive plant usage can be traced back to more than 2,500 years ago in Italy, where opium poppies were consumed. The artefactual evidence of this practice comes in the form of sphere-shaped pendants resembling opium capsules, and the earliest known paleobotanical evidence of opium use was found near Lake Bracciano, northwest of Rome.
Our taste for addictive psychoactive substances is attested to in the earliest human records. Historically, psychoactive substances have been used by priests in religious ceremonies (eg, amanita muscaria); healers for medicinal purposes (eg, opium); or the general population in a socially approved way (eg, alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine) [2].
This early history of addiction provides important context for understanding how our relationship with psychoactive substances has evolved over time. From the use of opium for pain relief in Ancient Rome to the socially accepted use of alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine, these substances have played a significant role in our societies, shaping cultural practices and influencing our understanding of addiction.
Evolution of Addiction Treatment
Understanding the history of addiction also involves reviewing the evolution of addiction treatment. This journey spans from the mid-18th century to the present day, marked by numerous scientific advancements and contributions from pioneers in addiction research.
Pioneers in Addiction Research
The mid-18th century marked the beginning of a significant shift in the understanding and treatment of addiction. Various pioneers in the field contributed to a rich body of scientific knowledge that continues to shape our understanding of addiction today.
Although foundation support for drug abuse research did not emerge until the 1960s and 1970s, when changing use patterns made drug abuse a subject of national concern, significant research began much earlier. These early efforts laid the groundwork for the establishment of institutions like the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), which was created in the late 1960s to oversee the responsibility of drug abuse research.
Impact of Scientific Advancements
Scientific advancements have played a significant role in shaping the evolution of addiction treatment. For instance, understanding the complexities of cellular responses to drugs required the development of tools to measure the response and to integrate this knowledge with complex cellular biochemistry, a technology that was developed only in the past decade.
The growth in funding for drug abuse research since the 1960s has enabled the development and implementation of increasingly sophisticated treatment modalities. Greater understanding of the neurological, psychological, and social aspects of addiction has led to more effective and personalized treatment strategies.
In summary, tracing the history of addiction treatment provides valuable insights into how our understanding and management of addiction have evolved over time. Recognizing the pioneering work of addiction researchers and the impact of scientific advancements is integral to this understanding. This knowledge allows us to appreciate the progress made so far, while also highlighting the need for continued research and innovation in the field of addiction treatment.
Cultural Perspectives on Substance Use
A critical aspect of understanding the history of addiction is to consider the cultural perspectives that have shaped attitudes towards substance use. These perspectives have not only influenced societal views on substance use but have also played a significant role in determining how different societies respond to the challenge of addiction.
Sociocultural Beliefs and Substance Use
Sociocultural beliefs can shape the approach to and behavior regarding substance use and abuse. Culture plays a central role in forming the expectations of individuals about potential problems they may face with drug use. For many social groups, this may provide a protective factor.
An example of this cultural influence is the use of alcohol by the ancient Aztecs before any contact with white settlers. Their use of alcohol was heavily regulated and was only for ceremonial purposes. Non-ceremonial use of alcohol was strictly forbidden under penalty of death. This demonstrates how sociocultural beliefs and practices can significantly impact the use of psychoactive substances.
Acculturation and Substance Abuse
Acculturation, or the degree to which an individual identifies with his or her native culture, is thought to be related to substance use and abuse. Native American elders believe that many substance abuse problems are related to the loss of traditional culture. Higher rates of substance use have been found in persons who closely identify with non-Native American values, while the lowest rates are found in bicultural individuals who are comfortable with both sets of cultural values [5].
This suggests that a strong identification with one's cultural roots can act as a protective factor against substance abuse. However, the process of acculturation can also lead to increased risk, particularly if it involves a shift towards a culture with more liberal attitudes towards substance use.
By understanding these cultural perspectives on substance use, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the history of addiction. It underscores the importance of considering cultural context in the development of strategies to prevent and treat substance abuse.
Historical Use of Psychoactive Substances
The history of addiction is deeply intertwined with the historical use of psychoactive substances. Many of these substances were commonly used in ancient cultures for a variety of reasons, from medicinal purposes to religious rituals.
Opium and Cannabis in Ancient Cultures
Opium poppies are among the first psychoactive plants to be consumed by humans. The earliest known evidence of their usage dates back to more than 2,500 years ago in Italy, where sphere-shaped pendants resembling opium capsules were found near Lake Bracciano, northwest of Rome.
In the Roman Empire, opium was frequently prescribed by doctors to relieve pain, aid sleep, treat coughing, and diarrhea. Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Emperor, used opium multiple times a day to alleviate chest and stomach discomfort while he was at war. His opium use led to withdrawal symptoms when attempting to quit, affecting his ability to conduct his duties during the day.
Cannabis also played a significant role in ancient cultures. The Scythians, an ancient culture, engaged in smoking rituals involving hemp. When a Scythian died, their friends and family would burn hemp inside a tent, leading to pleasurable experiences from the smoke [1].
The Romans considered cannabis seeds a delicacy and consumed them fried as a dessert after dinner. The seeds were believed to enhance the appetite for drinking and create a feeling of warmth that could induce a "warm and toxic vapor" when consumed in large amounts [1].
Alcohol and Drug Use in Ancient Societies
Alcohol and drugs have been used for thousands of years. Alcoholic beverages have been fermented from an array of plants and fruits since at least 4000 BC. Both wine and beer were first made in what are now Iraq and Iran. Some of the earliest references to the use of alcohol are found in ancient Sumerian clay tablets that contain recipes for the use of wine as a solvent for medications.
Marijuana is thought to have its origins more than 4000 years ago in China and later in India. Before its psychoactive use, marijuana (hemp) was used as a fiber, and traces of its use for cloth date back more than 10,000 years in China. After World War I, Mexican laborers introduced Americans to smoking marijuana for its psychoactive properties [5].
Most of the world's psychoactive plants originated in the Americas--in all, more than 1500 compounds. Included among these mind-altering drugs are hallucinogens, stimulants (cocaine), and tobacco. Cocaine was produced in the Andes of South America and became a major drug of abuse in the United States in the past 30 years. Tobacco was used in the New World in approximately 5000 BC [5].
The historical use of these psychoactive substances provides a revealing lens into the history of addiction. It offers insights into how early societies interacted with these substances and how their uses and perceptions have evolved over time.
Understanding Addiction
In order to understand the history of addiction, it's crucial to delve into the definition and evolution of addiction, as well as the etiology and debates surrounding this complex issue.
Definition and Evolution of Addiction
Addiction is defined as a "strong dependence, both physiologic and emotional" [2]. The understanding and definition of addiction have evolved over time, with the term "addiction" first being used in English-speaking countries and then adopted in other languages. The concept of addiction, particularly the issue of loss of control over substance use, has been discussed since the 17th century. This early dialogue laid the groundwork for today's understanding of addiction [2].
Interestingly, there has been a shift in the focus of addiction from opiates to other substances over time, including nicotine. Furthermore, the distinction between the terms "dependence" and "addiction" has been a topic of ongoing debate.
Etiology and Debates Surrounding Addiction
The etiology, or cause, of addiction is complex. The historical roots of addiction medicine can be traced back to ancient civilizations, such as the Romans and Greeks, who recognized the effects of alcohol withdrawal and the medical consequences of drinking during pregnancy [2].
The complexity of addiction is reflected in the frequent pendulum swings between opposing attitudes on issues that are still currently being debated. These debates encompass a wide range of topics, including the biological versus psychological causes of addiction, the influence of genetics and environment, and the role of personal responsibility versus societal factors.
These debates highlight the fact that addiction is a multifaceted issue, with biological, psychological, and social factors all playing a role. The ongoing research and debate in this field continue to shape our understanding of addiction and inform the development of effective treatment strategies.
The historical perspective on addiction provides important insights into how our understanding and treatment of addiction have evolved over time. By tracing the history of addiction, we can gain a better understanding of the complexities of this issue and the challenges facing those who struggle with substance use disorders.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
When discussing the history of addiction, one organization that has played a significant role in the evolution of addiction research and treatment is the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).
Role and Impact of NIDA
Established in the late 1960s, NIDA has taken on the responsibility of overseeing drug abuse research. The foundation support for this kind of research did not emerge until the 1960s and 1970s when changing patterns of drug use made drug abuse a subject of national concern. Before NIDA's establishment, significant research had already begun, but it was the arrival of NIDA that marked a new era in the systematic exploration of drug abuse and addiction.
The role and impact of NIDA have been substantial. The organization has been at the forefront of advancing our understanding of drug abuse and addiction, promoting evidence-based strategies for preventing and treating drug-related issues, and promoting effective drug policies. NIDA's work has helped shape the way we perceive and manage addiction, contributing significantly to the evolution of addiction treatment.
Advancements in Drug Abuse Research
Over the years, NIDA's research has played a critical role in unveiling the complex nature of addiction. One of the key advancements in drug abuse research has been the development of tools to understand the cellular response to a drug. This technology, which has only been developed in the past decade, has allowed scientists to measure the cellular response and integrate this knowledge with complex cellular biochemistry.
This technological advancement has not only shed light on the biological mechanisms underlying addiction but also highlighted the fact that most modern problems, as well as benefits, resulting from drug use are outcomes of scientific and technological progress.
As NIDA continues to push the boundaries of our understanding of drug abuse and addiction, it is clear that the history of addiction is a continually evolving narrative. It is one shaped by the interplay of scientific discovery, technological advancement, and societal changes and challenges. Through the work of organizations like NIDA, we continue to make strides in understanding and addressing the complexities of drug abuse and addiction.
References
[1]: https://bigthink.com/the-past/history-of-drugs-ancient-greece-rome/
[2]: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3202501/
[3]: https://recovery.org/drug-treatment/history/
[4]: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232965/
[5]: https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/culture-and-substance-abuse-impact-culture-affects-approach-treatment
